The war between the Athenian Empire and Sparta reveal that the deepest division in ancient Greece was not sex-based, ethical or moral, religious, philosophical, superstition versus rationalism, or racial (Dorian versus Ionian). The true divide, which exists in Athens itself as well as externally between her and her Dorian counterparts, was about how to organize society: along oligarchic or democratic lines.
After the death of Alcibiades and the Athenian naval defeat at the Sea of Marmora, Lysander, the Spartan admiral, “sailed down from city to city, overthrowing the democracies and setting up oligarchic governments subject to Sparta” (451 Durant). With his subjugation of Athens itself, Critias established a rule of thirty men. This was significantly less than the “Council of Four Hundred” established in 411 or the counter-revolutionary concession of Theramenes in establishing the Council of Five Thousand (449).
Athens had an internal pressure between oligarchy and democracy. Since the early development of democratic institutions, and the development away from clan to aristocracy, the limited, but deep democracy of Athens had stood. In times of peace and prosperity, indeed in times of foreign aggression (Persia) the democratic identity of Athens was secure. It was only the extreme pressures of a dissolving empire and Spartan force which caused the democratic institutions to fail.
Nevertheless, the oligarchs enjoyed no real support after Spartan victory. In 403, Thrasybulus defeated Critias and his Council of Thirty and restored democracy. This democratic re-institution had the flavor of Rome under the Antony and Octavian, or even the French radicalism of the Revolution. They sought to punish a famous subversive: Socrates.
Socrates is now remembered for his ethical and moral stance, his philosophic questioning, and his contributions to Western thought. But in post-oligarchic Athens, he was accused of the seduction and corruption of the youth and offenses against religion.
Superstition was still powerful in Athens, despite her rationalistic achievements, and it was tied to politics. It is likely that, as the Romans would see a deviant Vestal Virgin as cause of national divine punishment, some Athenians viewed Socratic liberalization as criminal.
Alcibiades was once very close to Socrates, perhaps his lover. In addition, the superstitious Athenians had decided to put to death eight victorious generals for leaving the dead in the sea during a storm (450). As in Antigone, this was an impiety. Only Socrates’ vote stopped the motion, but the democrats over-rode his decision.
In Plato, we find a student who embraces republic over democracy. This may be the result of the tumultuous era of the Peloponnesian War and Socrates involvement with the politics of that era.
Ultimately Spartan oligarchy fails. The Athenian Empire proved, even in its death, that real power, economic, political, and military, rested in naval domination more than the power of landed aristocrats. Their power would never end, but it became subservient to the new merchant class.
The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece, William Durant,
Simon and Schuster 1939 N
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